Obedience is encouraged by reminding the individual of what a perceived authority states and by showing them that their opinion goes against this authority.[50]. 189 0 obj Appeal to authority tends to be quite effective due to our tendency to believe those people we see as more knowledgeable. Appeal to Expert Opinion (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania Forms of Authority and the Real Ad Verecundiam, execute Jewish people personally, he had soldiers do it. Appeal to authority, argument from authority or authoritative argument. If the consensus of "expert" opinion on a certain subject isn't more likely to be true than an inexpert opinion, then it's worthless. <> In general, the reversal usually goes: Most people believe A and B are both true. The answer to the question But how do you know thats true?Because I said so, thats whyholds a different kind of weight than the answer given by an award winning real estate agent. An advertising budget is important for a successful marketing plan. The argument implies that the endorser's fame alone is sufficient to establish the truth of the position. ]6I#8g(bv\R0)Y"z;`},^\tG ud=2 Y:PpaQq;oc? 33 0 obj endobj That line of argument is based on a belief in historical progress and notlike the ad populum reversal ison whether or not X and/or Y is currently popular. The authority must be connected with the field in question. <><>3 4]/P 6 0 R/Pg 208 0 R/S/Link>> 12 (1998), 267-280., 5. This is an example of an ad hominem attack because it focuses on the company making the vaccine instead of the vaccine's safety. (cognitive or epistemic authority); prestigious or powerful individuals or Methods of Reasoning: A Source Book in Logic and Scientific Method, Introduction to the Study If that authority isnt really an authority, the <> One hesitates to say that Doyle, or any other of these unnamed gentlemen, was a fool and dunderhead. et al. One analysis of the affair notes that "Over and over again, throughout the scientific community and the media, LaCour's impossible-seeming results were treated as truth, in part because of the weight [the study's co-author] Green's name carried". endobj The reasoning of these individuals in those respective Argumentum ad Ignorantiam:The Argumentfrom Ignorance. For the Catholic liturgical term, see, It is also the basis of a number of social phenomena, including, Learn how and when to remove this template message, 50,000,000 Elvis Fans Can't Be Wrong: Elvis' Gold Records, Volume 2, Hurting the feelings of the Chinese people, "Falacia ad populum: definicin, caractersticas, ejemplos", "A History of the Fallacies in Western Logic", "The Appeal to Popularity and Presumption by Common Knowledge", "Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to Numbers)", "Philosophy 103: Introduction to Logic: Argumentum Ad Populum", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argumentum_ad_populum&oldid=1132401887, "Everyone loves . Difficult. Arthur Schopenhauer, The Art experts in a particular field of knowledge <> Description: The argument supports a position by citing the endorsement of someone who is well-known (famous). Kreeft, Peter. Some authors consider that the argument ad verecundiam is actually a variant of the fallacy or ad hominem argument. doesnt cause a fallacy, its still not a strong enough of a <> authority fallacy. Can you pronounce this word better. The general form of this type of argument is: Person or persons A claim that X is true. uuid:55b0b053-adad-11b2-0a00-600feb2ffc7f <>27]/P 22 0 R/Pg 208 0 R/S/Link>> For example, on controversial issues in ethics or politics your own opinion may be as good as anyone else's. To effectively recognize and avoid this fallacy, the lack of authority must be adequately established. Appealing to authority cannot be escaped always; its just <> This second type of authority is called epistemic authority (relating to knowledge). Walter Williams, Higher speaker is appealing to an authority that has no relevant expertise It is a logical fallacy of authority, that is why it is also known as the argumentum ad verecundiam (in Latin, argument of respect). inductive arguments, statistical or probabilistic arguments, arguments from But when an authority is appealed to for testimony in matters outside the province of that authority's special field, the appeal commits the fallacy of argumentum ad verecundiam ".[40]. Winans and Utterback point out that the argument from The fallacy occurs when someone claims a certain conclusion is true because someone else, who is not an authority on the subject, says it is true. This fallacy seems to have originated with philosopher John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. For instance, those of us who are not physicians usually rely upon those who are when making medical decisions, and we are not wrong to do so. 95-96; Hurley, 2003, pp. Privacy Policy. There are, however, four major ways in which such arguments can go wrong: The Renaissance rebellion against the authority of Aristotle and the Bible played an important role in the scientific revolution. [26][31] Even textbooks[26] with photos showing 23 pairs incorrectly declared the number to be 24[31] based on the authority of the then-consensus of 24 pairs.[32]. When an argument uses the appeal to the beliefs of a group of experts, it takes on the form of an appeal to authority; if the appeal relates to the beliefs of a group of respected elders or the members of one's community over a long time, then it takes on the form of an appeal to tradition. 4 (May 5, 2013), 11A.. and an appeal to the testimony of an authority outside of the authority's An argument from authority ( argumentum ab auctoritate ), also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument. way. An example of the fallacy of appealing to an authority in an unrelated field would be citing Albert Einstein as an authority for a determination on religion when his primary expertise was in physics. He Quantum physics is outside the scope of your dads parental authority. All rights reserved. former Hollywood actor and union leader Ronald Reagan could have been endobj 203 0 obj Minimum Wages, Index-Journal 94 No. authority or argumentum ad verecundiam. Sign up to make the most of YourDictionary. <> However, in the final analysis, the Royal Society motto should .] Their exchange (which begins at 39:20 in the movie) ends like this: 3: I dont see anything wrong with drinking these 4 <>/MediaBox[0 0 612 792]/Parent 10 0 R/Resources<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI]>>/StructParents 18/Tabs/S/Type/Page>> If not, then your opinion will be as good as anyone else's. Clearly, this fallacy not only causes a It is important authorities to be impartial in the larchie[at]philosophy.lander.edu authorities or the individual? Expertise and intelligence in one area do not necessarily transfer to another, unrelated area. programs. Science and Technology Committee, 2011 Peer Review in Scientific Verecundiam Fallacy: Authority L on subject X 549., 9. Vitamin C delayed the onset of his cancer by twenty years. authorities cannot be a premise for a conclusion in any argument. Some authors consider it a variant of the ad hominem fallacy or argument addressed to the person and not to the subject it deals with. Most of the reasoning we do or the knowledge we obtain are transmitted by authorities. . and Training Foreign Affairs Oral History Project Library of Congress endobj 35 0 obj It can be due to: Timely events (Entertainment Shows, Global, and national sporting events, etc..) Breaking news. Donald Sanchez has been married for close to 30 years and is the father of two boys and a girl. Company, 1930), 157-171. Example 2: I'm just a cop mam, I'm doing what I'm told. [54], Corporate environments are similarly vulnerable to appeals to perceived authorities and experts leading to groupthink,[55] as are governments and militaries.[56]. The logical structure of this fallacy is the following: - As A enjoys authority or credibility and his opponent does not, what B says is true. (See conformity. Suppose you had a science question from school about the particle-wave duality in quantum physics. Methuen & Co. Ltd.: 1970), <> 6. claims statement p. Authority L's expertise is not relevant to (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 95., 5a. This line of thought is closely related to the appeal to spite fallacy given that it invokes a person's contempt for the general populace or something about the general populace to persuade them that most are wrong about X. See, for example, Douglas Walton, Appeal to Expert Opinion: Arguments Argumentation Vol. This would be an example of an appeal to a legitimate authority. nutrition labels exist, to stop this bias. When these cabinet ministers decided on affairs of state that could affect the world were they uneducated or callow? Examples of Ad Verecundiam Fallacy in News: The media reports on a new study without mentioning that it was funded by one of their advertisers The news article states that there is a "clear and present danger" of an imminent terrorist attack, but the author does not provide any evidence to support this claim. <> Their motivations for believing X do not affect whether X is true or false. endobj endobj reasons or evidence relevant to an inquiry. Once too many people find out about this great band, then they are no longer underground. Nevertheless, even if some should follow orders, they The meaning of AD VERRECUNDIAM is to modesty used of an argument. recognized by peers in the same field or, at least, by peers who either (November 19, 1990), 39., 10. 218 0 obj <> What does authority that isnt actions. In those cases, do we blame the Damer, T. Edward. 13 0 obj Methods of Reasoning: A Source Book in Logic and Scientific Method Charles <>13]/P 18 0 R/Pg 208 0 R/S/Link>> This reasoning is fallacious because many or most people believe something doesn't make it true. Fully understanding this fallacy Repeating a conjecture, no matter how much a scientific authority says it without being supported by a scientific study, is an argument ad verecundiam. (Wadsworth, 1983), 265. However, Dawkins does not do that. <> the field. He is a credentialed biologist. The problem arises because the argument of their expertise, but rather on the basis their conclusions were Appeals to the reverence generated by authority or prestige. 202 0 obj 249-250., 7. endobj argument from authority has been mentioned in lists of valid argument-forms as It is also the basis of a number of social phenomena, including communal reinforcement and the bandwagon effect. <> Parliament House of Commons: authority C. L. Hamlin Fallacies (London: In some situations, the authority has relevant a large group of specified individuals need not be fallacious because Your ad budget is the amount you plan to spend on paid promotion of your brand and/or products over a set time period, such as a year or a quarter. Commons 3.0 point in an argument where we have no expertise, we call upon an arguments was - to some extent - left aside in the study of argumentation which focuses mostly on only one aspect of . It is uncommon to treat quoting out of context as a separate fallacy, but I do so because it is a more common error than a number of traditional fallacies. [42] When an argument holds that a conclusion is likely to be true precisely because the one who holds or is presenting it lacks authority, it is a fallacious appeal to the common man. The fatacia ad verecundiam , or fallacy of authority, is to appeal to the respect or prestige of a person to support an argument. In fact endobj South Bend: St Augustines Press, 2014. ad verecundiam (plural ad verecundiams) Appeal to authority, argument from authority. has a built-in assumption that authorities can justify action or be If not, then why listen? Works for sale must link to a free copy. endobj - Family heads, social, religious or ancestral, among others. be understood and questioned. Dates in History, Examples of Antonyms: Types of Opposite Words. are individuals first; some orders should not be followed. Consulted on wiki.c2.com, Ad Verecundiam. Consulted by logicallyfallacious.com. Such an expert is disinterested, that is, lacks conflicts of interest such as a financial or political interest in one side prevailing. Luke Howard, Seven Lectures on Meteorology If a complete lack of bias is too much to ask for, then we can at least look for one of the least biased experts. [14][4][9] It uses an appeal to the beliefs, tastes, or values of a group of people,[12] stating that because a certain opinion or attitude is held by a majority, it is therefore correct.[12][17]. Therefore X must be false." 198 0 obj 23 0 obj Find similar words to ad-verecundiam using the buttons What has really happened is simply that too many people have started buying their albums so that listening to them no longer serves as a source of distinction. nonfallacious when the appeal is to a relevant authority. (New York: A. D. F. Randolf Company, 1898), Vol. endobj endobj authority is useful when matters of fact are beyond the knowledge of the The Ad Verecundiam Family - Personal. There is an old saying: "A doctor who treats himself has a fool for a patient," and a similar version for attorneys: "A lawyer who defends himself has a fool for a client." for him, ( d) the argument ad verecundiam (an appeal "to awe"), which seeks to secure acceptance of the conclusion on the grounds of its endorsement by persons whose views are held in general respect, ( e) the argument ad ignorantiam (an appeal "to ignorance"), which argues that something (e.g., extrasensory Read More fallacy Table of Contents supposed opinion has been transmitted, including both correctness and Former Hollywood actor John Eric Nolt, Informal Logic: Possible Experts are human beings, after all, and human beings err, even in their area of expertise. of Argument and Proof, Informal Logic: Possible It uses an appeal to the beliefs, tastes, or values of a group of people, stating that because a certain opinion or attitude is held by a majority, it is therefore correct. serve the people. Political opinions are often expressed at music or film award ceremonies. However, it is true that quoting out of context often occurs in appeals to authority, so it is something to watch out for. Very easy. Discovery and Change (Harcourt, Brace & World, 1970), 261. Taxonomy: Logical Fallacy > Informal Fallacy > Red Herring > Genetic Fallacy > Misleading Appeal to Authority5. When we reach a and Ethic, Illustrations of the advice about what is thought true; however, the fallacy occurs when the, Although some logicians today use the Latin phrase "When these grand sailors led ships into deadly battle against Germany's navy were they idiotic and impractical? Would you trust your doctor if he is on a commission for the drugs he When you were young and asked your parents why you had to do something you did not want to do, the answer they typically gave was because I said so, thats why. There was not much room for argument. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam. If so, proceed to the next question: Is the authority an expert on the matter? Ad verecundiam literally means "to modesty."Music: https://soundcloud.com/yiip/elec. 13. <>stream Cicero, On Academic Scepticism ed. Is this a matter upon which expert opinion is available? and William E. Utterback, Argumentation (New York: The Century 204 0 obj Examples of fallacy ad verecundiam are seen daily in daily life in dialogues between friends or academic discussions. If not, then find out what the expert consensus is and rely on that. Certainly, when evaluating an appeal to authority for. Advertisers often appeal to the illegitimate authority of the rich and famous to sell products. simply on the basis they stated something on, or upon, a subject Moderate. endobj Qualifications (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 49-50 and <> those workers were just following orders? Therefore, X should be believed. 195 0 obj Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). the lack of knowledge or expertise of the speaker, and also by implication the listener. A statesman is a person who enjoys social prestige and authority, but his opinions are not infallible and always valid in all fields. And so we say that it's sold out or 'mainstream' or even 'co-opted by the system'. J. T. Plunket, The Personal Christ, Gospel for Controversy, 37.. four kinds of commonly used assent producing devices: John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Knowledge, Ad verecundiam fallacies often occur when there is confusion between two different types of authority (See Jamie Whyte, Crimes Against Logic, 20). either an, Other instances when a conclusion is reached by citing the authority of [35], This fallacy is used when a person appeals to a false authority as evidence for a claim. Even though some dont consider Kylie Jenner as And we his readers should expect that the research Dawkins appeals to is research conducted by appropriate authorities in the field of moral philosophy. Description. Scholars have noted that certain environments can produce an ideal situation for these processes to take hold, giving rise to groupthink. endobj [38], It is also a fallacious ad hominem argument to argue that a person presenting statements lacks authority and thus their arguments do not need to be considered. Where Hauser goes beyond the philosophers is that he actually does statistical surveys and psychological experiments using questionnaires on the Internet, for example, to investigate the moral sense of real people (Dawkins, 222-23). Other authors classify ad verecundiam 1 0 obj authority. 221 0 obj Another reason may be that there is no agreement among all the authorities in that field about the matter under discussion, or even that the aforementioned authority was not speaking seriously. <> Record the pronunciation of this word in your own voice and play it to listen to how you have pronounced it. officials; social, family, religious, or ancestral heads. [43], Arguments from authority that are based on the idea that a person should conform to the opinion of a perceived authority or authoritative group are rooted in psychological cognitive biases[44] such as the Asch effect. The fact that people are well-known does not mean that their claims are true or should be trusted. critique. requires a closer look in its origin. ed. 3'. It Arthur Schopenhauer, The Art [36][37] These fallacious arguments from authority are the result of citing a non-authority as an authority. - Government, administrative or legal officials. relevantly quoted as a U.S. political authority at the time of his Janet Raloff, Plumbing the Archives, Science News endobj Example: "UFOs are not real, because the great CarlSagan said so." What is the meaning of ad Verecundiam? and learning. You need to go vegan, or you'll die. The Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam Defined. informal guide to Ad This method of argument is in many cases perfectly legitimate. Edited by Trent Dougherty. that he considers unreasonable. It doesnt take a genius to realize that the manufacturer will He Evolution is how we came to exist, we and monkeys share ancestors, Darwin says so, he is the one that came up with the theory of evolution.. Koszowy, Marcin and Douglas Walton. In other words:"I am right because I say it and because X says it". endobj Recall, however, that the fact someone claims to be an authority in any particular area does not necessarily guarantee that (1) he is in fact an authority or (2) the claims he is making are true. This would be what Peter Kreeft calls irrelevant authority (Kreeft, Socratic Logic, 82). The argument becomes fallacious when the authority is wrongly cited with the intention to manipulate. [17], Scientific knowledge is best established by evidence and experiment rather than argued through authority[18][19][20] as authority has no place in science. expertise for the argument but partial for one side of the argument. support your argument, even though the person is not an authority in Hurley, Patrick J. This fallacy is called appeal to that a bottle of soda which is rich with sugar isnt bad. In this, these authors follow the more subjective of Correct Thinking (Minneapolis, MN: Burgess, 1936), 85. For example, suppose that a medical scientist testifies that ambient cigarette smoke does not pose a hazard to the health of non-smokers exposed to it. In the late 17th century, John Locke first used the phrase to describe one of Retrieved from, Last edited on 23 February 2023, at 01:06, When contact changes minds: An experiment on transmission of support for gay equality, "Accounting for the force of the appeal to authority", "The Chromosome Number in Humans: A Brief History", "Human Chromosomes--Down's Disorder and the Binder's Mistakes", "Out of the Dark Ages: Human and Mammalian Cytogenetics: An Historical Perspective", "Paradigm Lost: The Human Chromosome Story", "The Case of the Amazing Gay-Marriage Data: How a Graduate Student Reluctantly Uncovered a Huge Scientific Fraud", "False Authority: When People Rely on the Wrong Experts", "A History of the Fallacies in Western Logic", "Contrasting Scientific & Non-Scientific Approaches to Acquiring Knowledge", "12 Psychological Tactics Donald Trump Uses to Manipulate the Masses", https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/groupthink, "Examination of Exclusion Rates in Massachusetts Public Schools", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argument_from_authority&oldid=1141035119, This page was last edited on 23 February 2023, at 01:06. [48], Further, humans have been shown to feel strong emotional pressure to conform to authorities and majority positions. adduced in disputation. Repeating conjectures that are offered by scientists or other authorities when the conjecture is not supported by formal study, is AdVerecundiam. [32] Painter's "influence was so great that many scientists preferred to believe his count over the actual evidence",[31] and scientists who obtained the accurate number modified[33] or discarded[34] their data to agree with Painter's count. 301 (February 27, 2013), For instance, the opinions of cigarette company scientists tend to be unrepresentative of expert opinion on the health consequences of smoking because they are biased to minimize them. unfortunately are sometimes really dangerous. In this the appeal to the authority is made in the wrong way, and sometimes deliberately, with the purpose of manipulating. Aristotle was so respected in the Middle Ages that his word was taken on empirical issues which were easily decidable by observation10. 2. The similar fallacy of chronological snobbery is not to be confused with the ad populum reversal. must be nowhere near as talented as the devoted and serious, For example, everybody would love to listen to fabulous underground bands that nobody has ever head of before, but not all of us can do this. Taxonomy: Logical Fallacy > Informal Fallacy > Red Herring > Genetic Fallacy > Misleading Appeal to Authority 5 Subfallacy: Appeal to Celebrity History: This fallacy seems to have originated with philosopher John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. & Company, 1891), 69. what about credible authorities that are not biased? further inquiry on the basis of modesty or respect for the authority's experience Throughout world of Controversy and Other Posthumous Papers, Philosophy of the Practical: Economic application/pdf For example, if I were to say, "many . Works for sale Ad Ignorantiam Definition. Charles H. Patterson, Principles Bias (problem 3) is one source of unrepresentativeness. Propositions | For an example, see above. Example concerning this page. Authorities must prove their contentions like everybody else. Darwin is an authority that we can use when we are talking on subject X or statement p. typical example of Ad The point is, dont be afraid to use to call upon when discussing the shape of the earth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. Clark et al., 1779), 311. "UFOs do not exist because the astronomer Carl Sagan said it.". 2 0 obj Here we seek to create an association between the product sold with the person who advertises it. In some circumstances, a person may argue that the fact that Y people believe X to be true implies that X is false. The cop is evidently doing something 12, See Douglas Walton, Legal Argumentation and Evidence endobj (London: Printed for G. and J. Offor et al., 1819), 253. "Appeal to the people" redirects here. %PDF-1.7 % The Copyleft copyright assures the user the freedom endobj 183 0 obj (2017). Locke refers to these only as "sorts of arguments", and not as "fallacies". (Routledge, 1018), 140., 4. know, orders are orders. While most people understand the sense behind seeking a second opinion when their life or health is at stake, they are frequently willing to accept a single, unrepresentative opinion on other matters, especially when that opinion agrees with their own bias. A common remark He makes the argument that religionmore specifically, Godis not necessary for a person to be morally good. Dawkins writes. I.e., Watts is suggesting our diffidence The paper was a fraud based on forged data, yet concerns about it were ignored in many cases due to appeals to authority. Consulted of yourdictionary.com, Appeal to Authority. 14 0 obj unnamed (unidentified) authority. Curran F. Douglass, Rationality, Control, In this sense, relevant criteria must be developed for the various authorities in order to diversify their type and correspondence. An argument is refuted only because a person of prestige does not agree with it, without reviewing the argument properly. and Freedom (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 97., 17. endobj This relates to point 2 in the Exposition, above. a bridge, will you do it?. The real danger with the appeal to I recently watched The Circle and noticed an appeal to pity fallacy when the main character, Mae, is talking to a co-worker at a party. authority depends upon: (1) the degree of relative and adequate intelligence of for the argument. Merriam-webster.com. Probably not, but who knows? In fact, Needless to say, this makes it one of the favorite persuasion techniques for many advertisers. endobj After all, he is the authority in your home. Social . x=[Tx 4^gS|96zp4Rp8s'p\/i?~_?nvf{tgKroB(iSn\|?boxb_^>.E{u+=/]URfuL(7Ani~reC2f}>xo\6-[ =s?i7P rvwK)Tsn!J|]1C[W^(U^^,~vPn8:d8p S _?;@Dmv/+.5|t=dIl]"ti.SE$?5Ubr}|< $.)}04lVCt8]bxz! Thomas Sowell, A Historic Catastrophe Index Journal Consequently, in the absence of authorities, theres no other way to be honest. ad Verecundiam fallacy (argument from inappropriate authority): 2020-02-14T14:18:30-08:00 . ] The God Delusion. 2020-02-14T14:18:30-08:00 below. Having a university degree gives a person the knowledge necessary to deal with a subject properly, but that does not mean that he is not wrong about a particular issue, even in his own specialty. It may happen that the aforementioned authority is not qualified to issue an opinion on that particular matter. However, suppose your dad is John C. Polkinghorne, the brilliant, former chair of Mathematical Physics at Cambridge University. endobj Douglas Walton and Hans V. Hansen develop similar well-known accounts of this concept. <> 1 I want to receive exclusive email updates from YourDictionary. Similarly, the Bible has been invoked as an authority on empirical or mathematical questions. 181 0 obj [. [49], Another study shining light on the psychological basis of the fallacy as it relates to perceived authorities are the Milgram experiments, which demonstrated that people are more likely to go along with something when it is presented by an authority. often as in lists of Fallacies. Charles Hamlin, Fallacies H. A. Larrabee (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1971), 17-18.. The fallacy ad verecundiam implies a disqualification against the person who sustains the argument: an attempt is made to diminish or reject an argument considering the lack of training or prestige of the arbiter against his opponent. In sum, Charles Hamlin states, Historically speaking, However, suppose that a doctor were to recommend an expensive medical test at a laboratory which he or she owns. to authority because it can lead to justifying some immoral actions. [2], Argumentum ad populum is a type of informal fallacy,[1][14] specifically a fallacy of relevance,[15][16] and is similar to an argument from authority (argumentum ad verecundiam). A more recent example involved the paper "When contact changes minds: An experiment on transmission of support for gay equality", published in 2014. Your example shows that expert consensus may be wrong, but not that "consensus, in and of itself, does not necessarily show something to be likely to be true". For this reason, it is often used in political activism and religious discourse. For the Japanese communist document, see, "Ad populum" redirects here. But even though he thinks his actions You know, orders are orders. arguments differently. to copy, distribute, display, and modify on the same terms. By signing in, you agree to our Terms and Conditions Presidents of the United States: George Bush, 1992-3 Book 2 (Washington, DC: The phrase"that is true because it was said on television"is an example of this. Argumentum ad verecundiam (argument or appeal to authority). The fallacy ad verecundiam implies refuting an affirmation or argument appealing to the prestige of a person, who has a different opinion on this or that topic.